Outside of American dojos or mist-shrouded temples of the orient where the spirituality-infused tradition of oriental martial arts is passed on, the combat techniques and martial arts traditions commonly used throughout Europe for hundreds of years have largely been lost.
In recent years a number of groups have turned to a relatively scarce number of surviving manuals and, through study of those manuals and diligent practice, have made an effort to recreate the combat arts that existed in Europe (and many parts of the Mideast) for the centuries before firearms turned the sword into primarily a civilian weapon. Before the advent of such groups, however, our view of such combat was shaped largely by filmmakers, who had no concern with historicity, and every concern with visual impact.
The result has been and still is sequences of sword dueling that, however exciting they may be to watch, are not bounded by any biomechanical or practical reality in either technique or length of encounter. This is true even though such scenes have gotten far more sophisticated, having moved beyond the simple strike-edge-to-edge-parry-disengage-and-repeat sequence of old swashbuckling films.
The intent was far more driven: keep from getting killed and if possible, kill your opponent. Which meant the action that followed the intent was far more explosive and intense--and by extrapolation, short-lived. Assuming that skill, weapon-quality, and armor-quality are equal between two combatants, a simple mistake or miscalculation was all that was necessary to the end the encounter. To see just how quickly this could happen, watch the short video below. Please note that this particular discussion pertains to opponents wielding swords. Sword-and-shield techniques are different, as are the techniques for knives, bludgeoning weapons, and polearms.
ARMA Longsword techniques
Additional techniques (ARMA)
Tuesday, May 27, 2014
Thursday, May 22, 2014
The Real Macbeth
Macbeth, or Mac Bethad mac Findláich, was born around 1005. His reputation as a coward and a murderer is not reflected in any records or writings by men contemporary to him. Our modern view is shaped almost exclusively by the character of Macbeth as portrayed by Shakespeare, who in turn based his character largely on the portrayal of Macbeth in Hector Boece's "History of Scotland" published in 1527. This history contained a number of distortions and even actual inventions, including the characters of Banquo and the witches.² It is generally agreed that his father was Findláich the mormaer of Moray (mormaer meaning a steward, but the Latin word used for it typically denotes "earl"), from the familial line of Loarn, which was a branch of the Dal Riata rulers. There is some uncertainty regarding his mother, but some historians believe she was Donada, a daughter of Malcom II of Scotland.¹
Macbeth's father was murdered when he was in his teens, and Macbeth's cousin Malcom, and afterward Gillecomgain took the title of mormaer. When Gillecomgain was murdered in 1032, the title of mormaer came to Macbeth. In 1033, he married Gruoch, Gillecomgain's widow, but they had no children.
Previous mormaer's of Moray had been very hostile toward Duncan I and the main royal line of the kings of Scotland, but Macbeth was more restrained in his hostility. He could afford to be, for Duncan was a poor strategist. He attempted to raid Northumbria to the south (to which his wife, Sybilla had strong family connections) in 1040 and was unsuccessful, so he turned his attention to Caithness and Thorfinn, the Earl of Orkney, to the north.²
Macbeth is believed to have a close relationship with Thorfinn, who is believed to have been his half-brother. When Duncan, whose raid on Caithness went poorly as he found himself outmaneuvered, Macbeth sent soldiers to supplement those of Thorfinn as Duncan retreated. Ultimately it was Macbeth that at encountered Duncan on the battlefield at Pitgaveny in August of 1040, where Duncan I was killed. Unlike the old man characterized by Shakespeare, Duncan was only 39 at the time of his death. His two young sons, including Malcom (who would become Malcom III) were sent away to safety. Macbeth was next in the line of succession, and he was elected to throne.²
In 1045 Crinan, Duncan's father and Macbeth's uncle+ staged a rebellion. The battle occurred near Dunkeld, where Crinan and his second son, Maldred were killed. In 1050, he was apparently secure enough in rule that he traveled to Rome for a papal jubilee.
In 1054 Duncan's son Malcom, supported by Kind Edward the Confessor of England and given the aid of Siward's (Earth of Northumbria) army, invaded Scotland. The two quite large armies met at Dunsinnan on July 27, 1054. This is believed to be the battle referred to in Shakespeare's play by the witches, though it was fought in the open and not with Macbeth hiding in a castle.¹,²
The battle was essentially a Scottish conflict, with Northumbrian (English) forces fighting on behalf of Malcom. Interestingly, most of Siward's army was comprised of Scandinavian troops, and much of Macbeth's army were Norman troops, the result of Normans taking refuge in Scotland after being expelled from England by King Edward. There was also a high probability that Thorfinn had sent men from Orkney, which would also have been largely Norse. Thus the battle was fought between old enemies--Danes versus Norse.²,³
Macbeth was defeated, but he was not deposed, and Siward had sustained large enough losses that he was forced to withdraw south to Strathclyde. He used this as a base of operations for continuing raids into Scotland, resulting in several years of civil war as his strength grew, and Macbeth's declined. In 1057 Macbeth found himself cut off from his main army during a retreat, and possibly wounded during a skirmish. He was then ambushed by at Lumphanan and killed. Indications are that support for Macbeth was quite strong, as his stepson Lulach was chosen to succeed him rather than Malcom, who had successfully defeated Macbeth.²
Sources
1. "Macbeth" Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/macbeth.shtml
2. Mike Ashley, (1998) The Mammoth Book of British Kings & Queens (pp393-395), New York, Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc.
3. "Macbeth" (n.d.) Wikipedia, Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth_of_Scotland
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| The medieval portion of Iona Abbey, located on the Isle of Iona on the west coast of Scotland, where Macbeth is buried. Photo by Oliver-Bonjoch |
Macbeth's father was murdered when he was in his teens, and Macbeth's cousin Malcom, and afterward Gillecomgain took the title of mormaer. When Gillecomgain was murdered in 1032, the title of mormaer came to Macbeth. In 1033, he married Gruoch, Gillecomgain's widow, but they had no children.
Previous mormaer's of Moray had been very hostile toward Duncan I and the main royal line of the kings of Scotland, but Macbeth was more restrained in his hostility. He could afford to be, for Duncan was a poor strategist. He attempted to raid Northumbria to the south (to which his wife, Sybilla had strong family connections) in 1040 and was unsuccessful, so he turned his attention to Caithness and Thorfinn, the Earl of Orkney, to the north.²
Macbeth is believed to have a close relationship with Thorfinn, who is believed to have been his half-brother. When Duncan, whose raid on Caithness went poorly as he found himself outmaneuvered, Macbeth sent soldiers to supplement those of Thorfinn as Duncan retreated. Ultimately it was Macbeth that at encountered Duncan on the battlefield at Pitgaveny in August of 1040, where Duncan I was killed. Unlike the old man characterized by Shakespeare, Duncan was only 39 at the time of his death. His two young sons, including Malcom (who would become Malcom III) were sent away to safety. Macbeth was next in the line of succession, and he was elected to throne.²
In 1045 Crinan, Duncan's father and Macbeth's uncle+ staged a rebellion. The battle occurred near Dunkeld, where Crinan and his second son, Maldred were killed. In 1050, he was apparently secure enough in rule that he traveled to Rome for a papal jubilee.
In 1054 Duncan's son Malcom, supported by Kind Edward the Confessor of England and given the aid of Siward's (Earth of Northumbria) army, invaded Scotland. The two quite large armies met at Dunsinnan on July 27, 1054. This is believed to be the battle referred to in Shakespeare's play by the witches, though it was fought in the open and not with Macbeth hiding in a castle.¹,²
The battle was essentially a Scottish conflict, with Northumbrian (English) forces fighting on behalf of Malcom. Interestingly, most of Siward's army was comprised of Scandinavian troops, and much of Macbeth's army were Norman troops, the result of Normans taking refuge in Scotland after being expelled from England by King Edward. There was also a high probability that Thorfinn had sent men from Orkney, which would also have been largely Norse. Thus the battle was fought between old enemies--Danes versus Norse.²,³
Macbeth was defeated, but he was not deposed, and Siward had sustained large enough losses that he was forced to withdraw south to Strathclyde. He used this as a base of operations for continuing raids into Scotland, resulting in several years of civil war as his strength grew, and Macbeth's declined. In 1057 Macbeth found himself cut off from his main army during a retreat, and possibly wounded during a skirmish. He was then ambushed by at Lumphanan and killed. Indications are that support for Macbeth was quite strong, as his stepson Lulach was chosen to succeed him rather than Malcom, who had successfully defeated Macbeth.²
Sources
1. "Macbeth" Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/macbeth.shtml
2. Mike Ashley, (1998) The Mammoth Book of British Kings & Queens (pp393-395), New York, Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc.
3. "Macbeth" (n.d.) Wikipedia, Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth_of_Scotland
Friday, May 9, 2014
Medieval Armor--Iconic Versus Historic
Attend any renaissance fair or re-enactment of the middle ages, and you will find no shortage of warriors in plate armor carrying longswords. For many, it is the only solid image that comes to mind, for the "knight in shining armor" is perhaps the icon of the era. And though the image itself is grounded in reality, the view of it as the norm for all of Western Europe throughout the entire Middle Ages is grossly inaccurate.
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| Jousting Match from Gugulix via Flickr |
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| Source: Mykg via Flickr |
Weapons, tactics and armor all developed in relationship to each other and therefore development was regional. In the early middle ages, most armor was leather or cloth, designed to provide some sort of protection against weapons that, for the most part, inflicted damage by cutting. The Roman gladius was a primarily a cutting weapon with a short blade that could be wielded safely within the tight ranks of the Roman legions. As time progressed, blades seemed to lengthen, one would surmise in the attempt to gain a reach advantage over one's enemy. The greater length also provided greater force when the blade made contact, increasing the potential for damage. This became of greater importance with the advent of chainmail (some say as early as the 5th century in the British Isles), which defended quite well against cuts. It did not, however, protect against concussion, and a blade landing with significant force could cause injury even if it was prevented from actually cutting.
The increasing use of chainmail led to the development of swords with narrower tips that rendered the weapon more suitable for thrusting and cutting. A blade thrust might pierce less substantial chainmail, and a soldier incapacitated by a forceful blow that failed to cut was then susceptible to a sword-thrust to unprotected areas.
Chainmail did not provide the same high level of protection against arrows or spears, and it's probably no accident that the increasing use of archers in battle seems to have been accompanied by the appearance of plates of metal being incorporated into armor. As plate armor became more prevalent, so did the use of weapons other than the longsword, even the best of which cannot cut through plate. Some crossbows might be able to pierce plate, but for the most part, the most effective weapons against plate were hammers, maces, and pikes. Hammers and maces could dent and cause rents in the armor, and in the process, beat the man inside to a pulp or knock him to the ground where a sword or dagger could be thrust into gaps for the kill; pikes wielded with enough force could actually pierce plate armor.
Because different regions developed at different speeds, it was not uncommon to see weapons and armor of predominately one type in one region, and those of a different type in a different region. Even moreso, to see all manner of types on the same battlefield even if there was a prevalence of one, as weapons and armor of one sort did not fall into disuse or disfavor all at once. The truth was, a man wore what he could afford that he thought would protect him most, and he armed himself with whatever he could afford that would enable him to kill his enemy before he got killed himself.
Obviously, plate was the ultimate in battlefield defensive armor, but it was vastly expensive and out of reach to all but a small percentage of elite soldiers and knights. In the early middle ages, a good sword might cost over a dozen cows (in a time when having one or two was average to well-off). A full suit of quality plate-armor cost the equivalent of thousands of dollars.
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| The highly-engraved (and probably for parade-use only) armor of Emperor Frederick II. |
Thursday, April 17, 2014
The Fate of La Isabella
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| Christopher Columbus, Cristofo Colombo, Cristobal Colon |
In 1492 Christopher Columbus, or Cristofo Colombo in his native Italian, set sail from Spain and landed just over a month later in what we now know as the Bahamas. He continued on and landed at Hispaniola (the island now home to Haiti and the Dominican Republic). There the ship Santa Maria foundered on a reef. Columbus established a fort or settlement there, christened it "Villa de la Navidad" and left just over 3 dozen men there. Since he was convinced he had found Asia, Columbus returned to Spain.
In 1493 Columbus left Spain a second time. When he returned to Hispaniola, he found that Villa de la Navidad (in what is now Haiti) had been destroyed and several of the men massacred. He sailed some 50 miles east along the northern coast and built a new settlement which he named La Isabella, which was located in the present-day Dominican Republic and was the first permanent non-native settlement in the Western Hemishpere.
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| Columbus' First Voyage. Map by Keith Pickering. Columbus' nomenclature in blue, modern names in black. |
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| Colombus' Second Voyage. Map by Keith Pickering. |
Though established with in the vicinity of a 1000 settlers, La Isabella was abandoned within 4 years. Disease and a hostile relationship with the local natives caused by Columbus' harsh treatment of them are believed to be the primary cause. Some of the typical diseases are to blame: malaria, smallpox, influenza. But new evidence uncovered by forensic archaeology suggests that a previously-unsuspected condition may also have played a role: scurvy.
The bones of crew and settlers indicate that many suffered from severe scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency and common to sailors of the era. Some of the scientists believe that being afflicted with scurvy at the time the settlement was established resulted in the settlers being more susceptible to other diseases, and that disease, privation, and poor morale all combined to destroy La Isabella.
Monday, April 7, 2014
Kingdoms within the UK 600-900
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| A rough idea of the kingdoms what is now the United Kingdom 600-900 AD. Based on a chart drawn by Brian Inness in Mike Ashley’s The Mammoth Book of British Kings & Queens, Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998 |
Northumbria and Mercia emerged as among the most powerful kingdoms of the era. Not until the late 600s did Wessex begin to unify. Under Egbert, the West Saxons dominated and became the rulers of England. It’s unclear when he was born, though it could have been as early 770 or 771. He is believed to have been the son of Eahlmund, who was briefly king of Kent. After the murder of Cynewulf, King Offa of Mercia gave the kingship of Wessex to Beorhtric, who viewed Egbert as a threat.
It’s believed that Egbert, with connections to Kent and it’s strong ties to the Frankish kingdoms, avoided potential murder by Beorhtric by removing himself to Charlemagne’s court. While there he was married to a close relative of Charlemagne’s. After the death of Beorhtric, the witan (council) recalled him from exile in 802 to succeed as king of Wessex. By 815, he had succeeded in bringing Kernow (Cornwall) under the near total influence of Wessex.
In 825, Mercia invaded, but its new king, Beornwulf, was defeated. Almost immediately afterward, Egberte sent his son, two earls, and the Bishop of Sherborne with an army into Kent, driving out King Baldred. Egbert's forces continued on into East Anglia, where it appears they may have been welcomed, as the East Anglian king wanted Egbert’s support against Mercia. Egbert invaded Mercia itself in 829 and moved on into Northumbria. King Eanred met him there and agreed to Egbert’s overlordship.
Egbert’s success was soon tempered by raids by Danish Vikings. In 835 they landed in Kent and the following year in Devon. Egbert failed to drive them out, by 838, the Vikings had combined forces with the Cornish in a war against the Saxons. The Saxons defeated them, however, in a battle near the Devon-Cornwall border. Egbert died about 839 and was succeeded by his son, Athelwolf, who was the father of Alexander the Great.
Tuesday, April 1, 2014
Oddest Cause of Death Ever?
Around 875 there was a man by the name of Sigurd I, also known as Sigurd Riki (Sigurd the Mighty) who was the earl of Orkney. He was a brother to Ragnald I and a direct descendant of one of several lines of Scandinavian kings. Ragnald initially was earl (jarl) of Orkney, but chronicles suggest he had little interest in administration and more in seafaring and warfare. He gave the title and the responsibility to Sigurd.
Sigurd was ambitious and wanted to establish his own kingdom. He teamed up with a cousin--the descendant of one of his ancestral uncles--and began to conquer northern Scotland. These conquests became the material of many Norse sagas, all of which portray Sigurd and his cousin Thorstein the Red, as two of the mightiest warriors of their day. They conquered the Picts of northern Britain, which resulted in the border of their combined kingdoms extending considerably south, with Sigurd possibly also laying claim to the northern Hebrides.
The Scottish kings were apparently too busy sorting out their own affairs in the south. Attempts to defend against the invaders were left to the earls of the Picts and Scots. One such earl was Maelbrigte, who was possibly the earl of Moray (and therefore an ancestor of Macbeth). He refused to negotiate terms with Sigurd, who flew into a rage and killed Maelbrigte. He hung Maelbrigte's head from his saddle as a trophy. Over the course of riding, however, the teeth from the severed head scraped Sigurd's leg. He developed septicemia and died, thus becoming the only ruler known to have been killed by being bitten by a dead enemy.
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| via Pinterest. Depiction is from a 6th century viking helmet |
Sigurd was ambitious and wanted to establish his own kingdom. He teamed up with a cousin--the descendant of one of his ancestral uncles--and began to conquer northern Scotland. These conquests became the material of many Norse sagas, all of which portray Sigurd and his cousin Thorstein the Red, as two of the mightiest warriors of their day. They conquered the Picts of northern Britain, which resulted in the border of their combined kingdoms extending considerably south, with Sigurd possibly also laying claim to the northern Hebrides.
The Scottish kings were apparently too busy sorting out their own affairs in the south. Attempts to defend against the invaders were left to the earls of the Picts and Scots. One such earl was Maelbrigte, who was possibly the earl of Moray (and therefore an ancestor of Macbeth). He refused to negotiate terms with Sigurd, who flew into a rage and killed Maelbrigte. He hung Maelbrigte's head from his saddle as a trophy. Over the course of riding, however, the teeth from the severed head scraped Sigurd's leg. He developed septicemia and died, thus becoming the only ruler known to have been killed by being bitten by a dead enemy.
Sunday, March 30, 2014
Lady Jane Grey
Politics in the Middle Ages was often a treacherous quagmire of ambition, spheres of influence, and opportunity. It proved fatal to the Lady Jane Grey, even though she was a daughter of Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk, and her mother was a daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and a younger sister of Henry VIII. These connections also made her a granddaughter of Henry VII and 1st cousin to Edward VI.
In 1547, about age 11, she was sent to live in the household of Thomas Seymour, who married Henry VIII's widow, Catherine Parr. Not long afterward, Thomas was arrested by his brother, Edward Seymour, Lord Protector and 1st Duke of Somerset, who is believed to have felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young king. Thomas was eventually executed.
Lady Jane was afterward proposed as a bride for the Lord Protector's eldest son, but nothing came of it. In the spring of 1553, she was engaged to Guildford Dudley, a younger son of the 1st Duke of Northumberland, who had assumed the role if not the title of Lord Protector while the king was still a minor and was one of the most powerful men in the country. In June of that year, the teen-age king lay dying of consumption and congenital syphilis, passed down from his father, Henry VIII. A zealous Protestant, he named Jane as successor to the Crown in an amendment to his father's will, thus barring the claims of his devoutly Catholic half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth. He died on July 6, 1553, and 3 days later, Jane was informed that she was now Queen of England, and was officially proclaimed as such the following day. Aware that the nobility resented what they viewed as Northumberland's scheming to get his son on the throne, Jane insisted that her husband would not jointly be proclaimed king.
Immediately after the king's death, however, Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife, Katherine of Aragon, set out to begin gathering supporters. She was extremely popular with the public, and seeing a threat, the Duke of Northumberland left London with troops in mid-July intending to arrest her. He was defeated and the Privy Council switched its allegiance from Jane to Mary, proclaiming her queen in London on July 19. Jane was subsequently imprisoned in the Tower of London.
On August 3, Mary entered London and 19 days later, the Duke of Northumberland was executed. In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful queen and revoked Jane's proclamation, making her an usurper. She and her husband, Guildford Dudley, were both charged with high treason, along with two of her brothers-in-law and Thomas Cranmer, former Archbishop of Canterbury. Not surprisingly, they were all found guilty and sentenced to death, although an imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her execution would be stayed.
Circumstances changed, however, when a Protestant rebellion broke out in January 1554. Even though she had nothing to do with the rebellion, she was known as a staunch Protestant, and her father and two uncles did join the rebellion. On February 12, 1554, Jane's husband was executed first. After his remains were taken back to the Tower, Jane was taken out to the scaffold at Tower Green. She made a statement, recited Psalm 51, and blindfolded herself. She couldn't find the block until someone assisted her. The executioner asked her forgiveness, which she granted, and then Lady Jane Grey was executed. She was not yet 20 years old.
She and her husband were buried in the chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. Her father, Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days later. Her mother remarried in 1555 and was allowed to live at Court with her two surviving daughters.
Sources: The Mammoth Book of British Kings & Queens by Mike Ashley, Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1999, pp 637-638.
Wikipedia.org
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| The Streatham Portrait of Lady Jane Grey, Oil on oak panel, dated c.1590. Source: Wikimedia Commons |
In 1547, about age 11, she was sent to live in the household of Thomas Seymour, who married Henry VIII's widow, Catherine Parr. Not long afterward, Thomas was arrested by his brother, Edward Seymour, Lord Protector and 1st Duke of Somerset, who is believed to have felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young king. Thomas was eventually executed.
Lady Jane was afterward proposed as a bride for the Lord Protector's eldest son, but nothing came of it. In the spring of 1553, she was engaged to Guildford Dudley, a younger son of the 1st Duke of Northumberland, who had assumed the role if not the title of Lord Protector while the king was still a minor and was one of the most powerful men in the country. In June of that year, the teen-age king lay dying of consumption and congenital syphilis, passed down from his father, Henry VIII. A zealous Protestant, he named Jane as successor to the Crown in an amendment to his father's will, thus barring the claims of his devoutly Catholic half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth. He died on July 6, 1553, and 3 days later, Jane was informed that she was now Queen of England, and was officially proclaimed as such the following day. Aware that the nobility resented what they viewed as Northumberland's scheming to get his son on the throne, Jane insisted that her husband would not jointly be proclaimed king.
Immediately after the king's death, however, Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife, Katherine of Aragon, set out to begin gathering supporters. She was extremely popular with the public, and seeing a threat, the Duke of Northumberland left London with troops in mid-July intending to arrest her. He was defeated and the Privy Council switched its allegiance from Jane to Mary, proclaiming her queen in London on July 19. Jane was subsequently imprisoned in the Tower of London.
On August 3, Mary entered London and 19 days later, the Duke of Northumberland was executed. In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful queen and revoked Jane's proclamation, making her an usurper. She and her husband, Guildford Dudley, were both charged with high treason, along with two of her brothers-in-law and Thomas Cranmer, former Archbishop of Canterbury. Not surprisingly, they were all found guilty and sentenced to death, although an imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her execution would be stayed.
Circumstances changed, however, when a Protestant rebellion broke out in January 1554. Even though she had nothing to do with the rebellion, she was known as a staunch Protestant, and her father and two uncles did join the rebellion. On February 12, 1554, Jane's husband was executed first. After his remains were taken back to the Tower, Jane was taken out to the scaffold at Tower Green. She made a statement, recited Psalm 51, and blindfolded herself. She couldn't find the block until someone assisted her. The executioner asked her forgiveness, which she granted, and then Lady Jane Grey was executed. She was not yet 20 years old.
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| Ejecución de Lady Jane Grey by Paul Delaroche, 1833, Oil on canvas Source: Wikimedia Commons |
She and her husband were buried in the chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. Her father, Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days later. Her mother remarried in 1555 and was allowed to live at Court with her two surviving daughters.
Sources: The Mammoth Book of British Kings & Queens by Mike Ashley, Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1999, pp 637-638.
Wikipedia.org
Monday, March 24, 2014
Armor Fit for A King
This suit of armor was made for Henry VIII, King of England in the early part of the 16th century, in his older years after he had gained weight and was suffering from various ailments, including gout. It may have been worn by him in the siege of Boulogne in 1544, his last campaign. It was almost certainly constructed for use in both mounted and unmounted combat, as it was originally fitted with a detachable reinforcing breastplate that had a rest for a lance attached to it, and a reinforcement for the left the pauldron.
The armor is described in the inventory taken after Henry's death of his belongings, in 1547, as being of Italian making. Whether it was actually crafted in Italy or supplied by a Milanese merchant who was licensed by Henry to import luxury goods and armor into England is unclear.
After Henry's death, the armor was given to William Herbert, first Earl of Pembroke (c.1507-1570), who was Henry's esquire and also the executor of his will. It is recorded at the seat of the Pembroke family from 1558 until it was sold in early part of the 20th century. Sometime around the end of the 18th century the origins of the armor were mistaken and it was believed to have belonged to Anne de Montmorency, Constable of France. This error was not discovered until recently.
The armor is an early example of the “anime” type, in which the breastplate and backplate are constructed of horizontal overlapping plates connected and made flexible by rivets and internal leather straps. The decoration and ornament is typically Italian. It is made of steel, blackened, etched and gilded, and leather, and weighs just over 50 pounds.
Source: The Metropolitan Museum, http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/23936
Sunday, March 9, 2014
Cloughoughter Castle, Ireland
The ruins of Cloughoughter Castle stand in what used to be the Irish Kingdom of Breifne (what you DAoC players may recognize as “Breifine” from the Kingdom of Hibernia) and what is now the County Cavan. It is built on an island in the Lough Oughter.
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| Photo courtesy of Conde-Nast Traveller |
The castle was believed to have initially been constructed c1200-1225, possibly under the control of the Anglo-Norman William Gorm de Lacey. But by 1233 it came under the control of Clan O’Reilly, who held it for a considerable length of time. When Britain established the Plantation of Ulster, Hugh Culme was granted control of the castle. Perhaps a little too spartan for his taste, he built a residence on the mainland shore and used the castle on the island as an armory.
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| Photo Source: flickr.com/photos/naomimiki |
During the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Philip O’Reilly and several other conspirators captured Culme and imprisoned him and several other “plantationers” in the castle, where they were held for several years.
The castle was attacked by British forces under Cromwell after the Irish were driven off the mainland and forced to take refuge in the castle. The castle was bombarded from the shore, and in March 1653, it was the last stronghold of the rebellion to fall.
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| Interior of tower showing stairs from base to top. Photo source: www.360doc.com/content/12/1209/10 |
Saturday, March 1, 2014
The Church and Science
The dichotomy between religion and science, particularly Christianity, did not always exist as it currently does. In fact, as the Church was the primary vehicle for education in the Middle Ages, many scientists of that era were ecclesiastics. In fact, David C. Lindberg, in his 1986 publication "God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science" describes Jesuits as, "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century."
The pursuit of science, however, was not limited to monks cloistered away in monasteries. Parish priests and bishops, such as Tiedemann Giese who was Bishop of Kulm and later Prince-Bishop, were also among those who zealously pursued scientific knowledge.
Other well-known scientists who were also ecclesiastics of various echelons within the Catholic Church include Copernicus, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Gregor Mendel, Theodoric Borgognoni, and Francesco Grimaldi, to name a few. These men conducted research and published papers on subjects ranging from astronomy to physics to medicine.
For example, Albertus Magnus, who lived from about 1206 to 1280 AD, was a Dominican friar and Bishop of Regensberg. He is considered the patron saint of natural sciences, completing works in physics, logic, metaphysics, biology, and psychology. He was beatified in 1622 and canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1931.
Or, how about Theodoric Borgognoni, who lived from 1205 to 1298. He was also a Dominican friar and the Bishop of Cervia. He was a medieval surgeon who made important contributions to antiseptic practices and the use of anasthetics.
And of course, let's not forget Copernicus (1473-1543). He was mostly just a canon of the church with ecclesiastic connections through his family rather than serving as an active priest. He was well-known in his day as a physician, but is remembered primarily because of his work in astronomy and his publication of works on heliocentrism.
Not until the Renaissance did the partnership between Church and Science begin to weaken. Learning was no longer strictly centered within the Church. As scientific pursuits called into question some of the early assumptions about the natural world that the Church, in the absence of any real knowledge, had embraced, the partnership began to dissolve.
The pursuit of science, however, was not limited to monks cloistered away in monasteries. Parish priests and bishops, such as Tiedemann Giese who was Bishop of Kulm and later Prince-Bishop, were also among those who zealously pursued scientific knowledge.
Other well-known scientists who were also ecclesiastics of various echelons within the Catholic Church include Copernicus, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Gregor Mendel, Theodoric Borgognoni, and Francesco Grimaldi, to name a few. These men conducted research and published papers on subjects ranging from astronomy to physics to medicine.
For example, Albertus Magnus, who lived from about 1206 to 1280 AD, was a Dominican friar and Bishop of Regensberg. He is considered the patron saint of natural sciences, completing works in physics, logic, metaphysics, biology, and psychology. He was beatified in 1622 and canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1931.
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| Albertus Magnus Painting by Joos van Gent |
Or, how about Theodoric Borgognoni, who lived from 1205 to 1298. He was also a Dominican friar and the Bishop of Cervia. He was a medieval surgeon who made important contributions to antiseptic practices and the use of anasthetics.
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| Anatomical drawing by Theodoric Borgognoni showing circulation of the blood. Image from Wikipedia Commons |
And of course, let's not forget Copernicus (1473-1543). He was mostly just a canon of the church with ecclesiastic connections through his family rather than serving as an active priest. He was well-known in his day as a physician, but is remembered primarily because of his work in astronomy and his publication of works on heliocentrism.
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| Copernicus Self-Portrait |
Thursday, February 20, 2014
Medieval Needlework
While tapestries were woven by skilled artisans, usually commissioned by a noble to depict noteworthy accomplishments or events in his life or by the church to depict religious scenes, other needlework was done on an individual basis.
Below are examples of modern cross-stitch needlework done from Medieval-era patterns. Photos provided courtesy of HyperbOrean.
The pattern book these were taken from was by Johann Siebmacher, and you can download that here:
Johann Siebmacher Book
Below are examples of modern cross-stitch needlework done from Medieval-era patterns. Photos provided courtesy of HyperbOrean.
The pattern book these were taken from was by Johann Siebmacher, and you can download that here:
Johann Siebmacher Book
Sunday, February 16, 2014
Parade or "Court" Armor
In the Middle Ages, a king was required to be many things: statesman, judge, arbitrator, soldier. He was usually surrounded by other kings who were not averse to expanding their territories by annexing that of weaker rulers, so kings often used displays of wealth and power to help foster the image of being too formidable to safely attack, or perhaps of being more valuable as an ally.
Many kings were required to be true soldiers and spent much of their reigns on the battlefield. For state occasions, however, where the need to appear as the commander of his army or to project his image as a capable warrior arose away from the battlefield, kings had armor which wasn't designed for protection, but which reflected their wealth, status, and affiliations.
Below are detail pictures of the parade armor for Emperor Ferdinand I, who succeeded his brother, Charles V, as Holy Roman Emperor in 1558.
Many kings were required to be true soldiers and spent much of their reigns on the battlefield. For state occasions, however, where the need to appear as the commander of his army or to project his image as a capable warrior arose away from the battlefield, kings had armor which wasn't designed for protection, but which reflected their wealth, status, and affiliations.
Below are detail pictures of the parade armor for Emperor Ferdinand I, who succeeded his brother, Charles V, as Holy Roman Emperor in 1558.
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| Breastplate showing engraved image of the Virgin Mother and Child, a motif common to the armor of Ferdinand's brother, Emperor Charles V, who Ferdinand succeeded. The armor was made by Kunst Lochner, one of the premier armor smiths of the era in Nuremburg. |
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| The backplate here is engraved with the crossed staves and fire steels of the Order of the Golden Fleece, of which Ferdinand was a member. The toe caps of the boots, which are not pictured, have the imperial double-eagle surmounted by a royal crown to signify his status as king of the Romans and successor to his brother, Charles V. Source: http://thewickedknight.tumblr.com/post/75993459636/armor-of-emperor-ferdinand-i-germany-1549-made-by |
Thursday, February 6, 2014
On February 6, 1649....
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| Depiction of Charles II c. 1642-1643 Image courtesy of: http://british-history.tumblr.com/ |
Even Scotland was leery of Charles, who had attempted a failed invasion of Scotland and was not allowed to enter the country until he agreed to honor Presbyterianism. Charles II did not become King of England until 1660, when the Restoration began.
Tuesday, February 4, 2014
Marriage Contract, Henry VIII x Katherine of Aragon
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| Marriage contract between Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon |
Marriages between high-ranking personages were as much business contracts and treaties as they were a solemn union before God. Marriages were made to cement alliances, acquire property or territory, or to secure gold via a dowry.
The above marriage contract is that between Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon. It was signed in 1503 and the Pope granted the dispensation for the marriage the following year. But in 1505, Henry VII had begun to question his wisdom in contracting an alliance with Spain and forced his son to repudiate the betrothal. Katherine was left stranded in England. She had little money, little chance for a new suitor, and little prospect of returning to Spain.
When Henry VII died and his son became Henry VIII, he honored the agreement and married Katherine on June 11, 1509
Monday, February 3, 2014
Medieval Wall Discovered
A wall dating back to the Middle Ages was discovered when some renovation work was being done on a Victorian church dating back to 1840.
Located in Anglesey, an island off of the northern coast of Wales that has a long history, the wall was found at St. Ffinan's church near the village of Talwyrn when a new electricity cable was being installed. Records from the mid-1800's indicate that an old church was being torn down to make way for the building of the new church, with sources at that time dating the old church as early as 640 AD. The wall that was discovered may not be from that time period.
Angelsey, or Ynys Mon in Welsh, has scattered low mountains and a few natural lakes. It is currently on one of the main routes from Great Britain to Ireland via ferries, and is also known for having one of the northernmost olive groves in Europe.
It was believed to be closely associated with the Celtic druids who had sacred groves on the island. The island was attacked in AD 60 by the Roman general Gaius Suetonius Paulinis who destroyed the shrine and cut down the groves, but the island was not brought into the Roman Empire until AD 78. The Roman occupation ended toward the close of the 5th century, and the island eventually became the site where the court for the Kingdom of Gwynned was established. It remained the capital until the 13th Century, when maritime advances nullified the island's natural defensive advantages.
To read the article regarding this discovery in the UK Daily Post, Click Here
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| Medieval Wall at St. Ffinan's Church, Talwryn, Anglesey, Wales Photo unattributed, courtesy of the UK Daily Post |
Located in Anglesey, an island off of the northern coast of Wales that has a long history, the wall was found at St. Ffinan's church near the village of Talwyrn when a new electricity cable was being installed. Records from the mid-1800's indicate that an old church was being torn down to make way for the building of the new church, with sources at that time dating the old church as early as 640 AD. The wall that was discovered may not be from that time period.
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| St. Ffinan's Church near Talwyrn, Anglesey, Wales. Photo unattributed, courtesy of the UK Daily Post |
It was believed to be closely associated with the Celtic druids who had sacred groves on the island. The island was attacked in AD 60 by the Roman general Gaius Suetonius Paulinis who destroyed the shrine and cut down the groves, but the island was not brought into the Roman Empire until AD 78. The Roman occupation ended toward the close of the 5th century, and the island eventually became the site where the court for the Kingdom of Gwynned was established. It remained the capital until the 13th Century, when maritime advances nullified the island's natural defensive advantages.
To read the article regarding this discovery in the UK Daily Post, Click Here
Saturday, February 1, 2014
February 1 - Selected Events in History
On This Day in 772:
Adrian I became Pope. Shortly afterward the Papal States were invaded by King Desiderius of the Lombards who was coincidentally the father-in-law of Charlemagne. Charlemagne had repudiated his wife in 771 after assuming total control of the Frankish kingdom, and at Pope Adrian's request, he agreed to invade northern Italy to fight Desiderius. The end result was that Charlemagne also became King of the Lombards.
Adrian struck the first papal coin, and was also the first Pope to no longer date his documents by the emperor in Constantinople, but by the reign of Charles, King of the Franks (Charlemagne).
Apart from his extremely cordial relationship with Charlemagne, Adrian's legacy included the restoration of some of the aqueducts of Rome, and the rebuilding of the churches Santa Maria in Cosmedin and San Marco in Rome. He died in 795 at the age of 95, and his reign remained the longest of any pope until that of Pius VI in the late 18th Century.
On This Day in 1587:
Queen Elizabeth I signed the warrant of execution for Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. Mary had been convicted and sentenced to death by a court of 36 nobleman on October 25, but for political reasons, Elizabeth was reluctant to have the sentence carried out. Members of the Privy Council, led by William Cecil, Lord Burghley took matters into their own hands several days later and carried out the execution.
Adrian I became Pope. Shortly afterward the Papal States were invaded by King Desiderius of the Lombards who was coincidentally the father-in-law of Charlemagne. Charlemagne had repudiated his wife in 771 after assuming total control of the Frankish kingdom, and at Pope Adrian's request, he agreed to invade northern Italy to fight Desiderius. The end result was that Charlemagne also became King of the Lombards.
Adrian struck the first papal coin, and was also the first Pope to no longer date his documents by the emperor in Constantinople, but by the reign of Charles, King of the Franks (Charlemagne).
Apart from his extremely cordial relationship with Charlemagne, Adrian's legacy included the restoration of some of the aqueducts of Rome, and the rebuilding of the churches Santa Maria in Cosmedin and San Marco in Rome. He died in 795 at the age of 95, and his reign remained the longest of any pope until that of Pius VI in the late 18th Century.
On This Day in 1587:
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| Queen Elizabeth I Image courtesy of Wikigallery.org |
Queen Elizabeth I signed the warrant of execution for Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. Mary had been convicted and sentenced to death by a court of 36 nobleman on October 25, but for political reasons, Elizabeth was reluctant to have the sentence carried out. Members of the Privy Council, led by William Cecil, Lord Burghley took matters into their own hands several days later and carried out the execution.
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| Portrait of Mary Francois Clouet c. 1559 |
Friday, January 31, 2014
Charlemagne's Remains Proven--Kind Of
You know Charlemagne---aka Charles the Great, Karl der Grosse, Carolus Magnus, to name a few. He was born in 747 or 748, although popular tradition states 742. He died on January 28, 814 in Aachen (in modern Germany) and was entombed in the Aachen Cathedral.
He became King of the Franks in conjunction with his brother, but when his brother died in 771, Charles pre-empted his brother's heirs and became sole king. Through military campaigns he annexed northern Italy in 773-774, assuming the Lombard crown as well. He suffered a major defeat in Spain, but then annexed Bavaria in 787-788.
Charlemagne was able to expand his empire and maintain it through the interweaving of military ability, diplomatic skill, determined bureaucratic regulation, and a knack for maintaining a good relationship with the papacy. His focus on strengthening the role of ecclesiastics, who were mostly learned men, in his kingdom also led to a revival of culture within the kingdom.
His relationship with the papacy grew even stronger when, in 799, Pope Leo III was physically attacked by a group of Romans that included some high-ranking members of the church, who accused him of misconduct and tyranny. Pope Leo fled to Charlemagne for protection, who then negotiated with Pope Leo's attackers so that, in lieu of being judged, he publicly swore an oath purging himself of the charges that had been laid against him. Two days later, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans."
Charlemagne's sarcophagus was opened in secret by German researchers back in 1988. After nearly 26 years, these researchers confirmed 1200 years to the day since the emperor's death, that the bones interred are in fact--most likely--those of Charlemagne. Most of the bones were recovered from the sarcophagus, although some skull fragments were taken from a bust of the emperor. Some bones are missing, and the researchers speculate they were given away in the years after the emperor's death as relics.
The determination that the remains are "probably" those of Charlemagne is based on the fact that the bones are consistent with the descriptions of Charlemagne--an older, thin, unusually tall man for the times (6 feet) that showed indications of a possible injury to the kneecap and heel bones that would be consistent with descriptions indicating that Charlemagne walked with a limp.
Source: "The Local: Germany's News in English", Germany edition, January 31, 2014, http://www.thelocal.de/20140131/charlemagne-bones-proven-genuine-1200-years-later
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| Gilded sarcophagus of Charlemagne in Aachen Cathedral. Photo: DPA |
He became King of the Franks in conjunction with his brother, but when his brother died in 771, Charles pre-empted his brother's heirs and became sole king. Through military campaigns he annexed northern Italy in 773-774, assuming the Lombard crown as well. He suffered a major defeat in Spain, but then annexed Bavaria in 787-788.
Charlemagne was able to expand his empire and maintain it through the interweaving of military ability, diplomatic skill, determined bureaucratic regulation, and a knack for maintaining a good relationship with the papacy. His focus on strengthening the role of ecclesiastics, who were mostly learned men, in his kingdom also led to a revival of culture within the kingdom.
His relationship with the papacy grew even stronger when, in 799, Pope Leo III was physically attacked by a group of Romans that included some high-ranking members of the church, who accused him of misconduct and tyranny. Pope Leo fled to Charlemagne for protection, who then negotiated with Pope Leo's attackers so that, in lieu of being judged, he publicly swore an oath purging himself of the charges that had been laid against him. Two days later, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans."
Charlemagne's sarcophagus was opened in secret by German researchers back in 1988. After nearly 26 years, these researchers confirmed 1200 years to the day since the emperor's death, that the bones interred are in fact--most likely--those of Charlemagne. Most of the bones were recovered from the sarcophagus, although some skull fragments were taken from a bust of the emperor. Some bones are missing, and the researchers speculate they were given away in the years after the emperor's death as relics.
The determination that the remains are "probably" those of Charlemagne is based on the fact that the bones are consistent with the descriptions of Charlemagne--an older, thin, unusually tall man for the times (6 feet) that showed indications of a possible injury to the kneecap and heel bones that would be consistent with descriptions indicating that Charlemagne walked with a limp.
Source: "The Local: Germany's News in English", Germany edition, January 31, 2014, http://www.thelocal.de/20140131/charlemagne-bones-proven-genuine-1200-years-later
Thursday, January 30, 2014
This Day in History - January 30th
On this day in 1077:
Pope Gregory VII pardoned Henry IV, the German king and Holy Roman Emperor. Henry had engaged in a long struggle with the Pope over the question of lay investiture, the right of a ruler to install men of his choice as bishops and abbots. Henry was excommunicated by the Pope, but did penance at Canossa and his excommunication was withdrawn.
On this day in 1349:
Gunther von Schwarzburg was elected King of Germany by opponents of Emperor Charles IV after the throne was refused by Edward III, King of England. Gunther did not enjoy the position for long: He was defeated by Charles at Eltville, and renounced his claims after being paid 20,000 silver marks. He didn't get to enjoy that long, either--he died 3 weeks later in Frankfort.
On this day in 1592:
Ippolito Aldobrandini is elected as Pope, and becomes Pope Clement VIII. One of the largest milestones of his papacy was the reconciliation of the Church and King Henry IV of France. Three years after he became Pope, he initiated an alliance between European Christian powers to fight against the Ottoman Empire in what became known as "The Long War" and which outlasted his lifetime.
On this day in 1647:
The Scots agree to sell Charles I to England for 400L. Charles I inherited a lot of issues along with the throne. Financially strapped and unpopular with parliament, he incited a rebellion in Scotland when he tried to force a new prayer book on them. In order to address the rebellion, he attempted to call Parliament twice, but failed. His attempt to then have 5 members of Parliament arrested upon the advice of his wife ultimately resulted in civil war when he raised his standard against Parliamentary forces at Nottingham in 1642. His supporters (Cavaliers) and supporters of Parliament (Roundheads) were further divided by religious and economic issues. Supported by the growing middle class of merchants and tradesmen, along with those of the nobility who were embracing Puritanism, the Roundheads had greater financial resources, and a larger population base from which to draw support.
Oliver Cromwell routed the Cavaliers in 1645. About a year later, Charles surrendered to the Scots, who then ransomed him back to England. His homecoming was not pleasant: Charles was tried for treason and executed in 1649. For additional information, check out this blog: Today in British History
Pope Gregory VII pardoned Henry IV, the German king and Holy Roman Emperor. Henry had engaged in a long struggle with the Pope over the question of lay investiture, the right of a ruler to install men of his choice as bishops and abbots. Henry was excommunicated by the Pope, but did penance at Canossa and his excommunication was withdrawn.
On this day in 1349:
Gunther von Schwarzburg was elected King of Germany by opponents of Emperor Charles IV after the throne was refused by Edward III, King of England. Gunther did not enjoy the position for long: He was defeated by Charles at Eltville, and renounced his claims after being paid 20,000 silver marks. He didn't get to enjoy that long, either--he died 3 weeks later in Frankfort.
On this day in 1592:
Ippolito Aldobrandini is elected as Pope, and becomes Pope Clement VIII. One of the largest milestones of his papacy was the reconciliation of the Church and King Henry IV of France. Three years after he became Pope, he initiated an alliance between European Christian powers to fight against the Ottoman Empire in what became known as "The Long War" and which outlasted his lifetime.
On this day in 1647:
The Scots agree to sell Charles I to England for 400L. Charles I inherited a lot of issues along with the throne. Financially strapped and unpopular with parliament, he incited a rebellion in Scotland when he tried to force a new prayer book on them. In order to address the rebellion, he attempted to call Parliament twice, but failed. His attempt to then have 5 members of Parliament arrested upon the advice of his wife ultimately resulted in civil war when he raised his standard against Parliamentary forces at Nottingham in 1642. His supporters (Cavaliers) and supporters of Parliament (Roundheads) were further divided by religious and economic issues. Supported by the growing middle class of merchants and tradesmen, along with those of the nobility who were embracing Puritanism, the Roundheads had greater financial resources, and a larger population base from which to draw support.
Oliver Cromwell routed the Cavaliers in 1645. About a year later, Charles surrendered to the Scots, who then ransomed him back to England. His homecoming was not pleasant: Charles was tried for treason and executed in 1649. For additional information, check out this blog: Today in British History
Wednesday, January 22, 2014
Family Drama, Middle-Ages Style
Everything is made into a reality series for television, it seems. From following folks who catch massive fish barehanded, to the family squabbles of a pawnshop owner, to the foibles of a juvenile would-be beauty queen, a sort of public voyeurism seems to be all the rage.
I can only imagine the eagerness with which people would flock to the tablets, smartphones, or DVRs for the drama that surrounded King Alfonso XI of Castile.
King Alfonso's marriage to Maria of Portugal in 1328 was no doubt arranged for its political and/or material benefits. Unfortunately for Maria, he was not especially fond of his wife, and showed a marked preference for a lady by the name of Leonor de Guzman. In fact, once Queen Maria produced the required son, Pedro, 1334, she and the boy were sent away from the Royal Court to essentially live in exile. She supposedly requested that King Alfonso stop making a public display of his preference for his mistress, which he ignored. Leonor was presented with considerable property, and was installed in Seville, where it's believed that she even was allowed to involve herself in political matters.
Leonor de Guzman was a widow of Juan de Velasco, who had died in 1328. She was the daughter of a nobleman, Pedro de Guzman, and her mother, Beatriz Ponce de Leon, was a great-granddaughter of King Alfonso IX of Leon. She and King Alfonso had ten children.
When King Alfonso XI died in 1350, Pedro, as the legitimate son, became the new King of Castile. He had a long memory, and now that his exile was over, he had scores to settle. He wasn't nicknamed Pedro the Cruel without reason. Coming into the throne with a Court that had for years been under the influence of Leonor and her sons meant that Pedro was stepping into the midst of intrigue.
Physical descriptions give him as being blond-haired and blue-eyed, thin, and with a slight speech impediment. His personality was said to be manipulative and vindictive. Several members of the aristocracy were assassinated or executed even after they had thought they had made peace with him. One of his first targets was Leonor herself. He had her imprisoned, and she was executed upon the orders of Pedro's mother--the slighted Queen Maria--in 1351.
The treatment of his mother doesn't seem to have curbed a similar tendency in Pedro, for he preferred his mistress to his wife. He married Blanche de Bourbon, daughter of the Duke of Bourbon, to solidify the alliance with France, and which also brought a massive dowry. They were married in 1353, and two days after the ceremony, he abandoned his new bride for his mistress. The resulting scandal strained the alliance with France, and caused Pedro to fall afoul of the Papacy. He tried to obtain an annulment, but ultimately had her imprisoned, and then murdered in 1361.
Pedro wasn't done causing problems. Castile had historically directed its martial energies toward the Moors in the south in Granada. Pedro ended the hostilities with them, instead allying with them to invade his fellow-Christian kingdom of Aragon because he had decided he wanted to control the Iberian peninsula.
Having successfully stirred up trouble away from home, Pedro now concentrated on home. In 1358 he invited his illegitimate yet powerful half-brother, Fadrique, to have dinner with him at the palace in Seville. Fadrique was escorted to the dinner table by Pedro's guards, where an execution order was given, and Fadrique's head was smashed in from behind by a mace. Pedro then went through the castle murdering members of the contingent that had traveled to the castle with Fadrique. The story is that he then returned to his table, only to find the unfortunate Fadrique still alive. He gave a dagger to a page and told him to finish the job. According to chronicles, Pedro then sat down and finished his meal.
This proved to be too much. Fadrique's twin brother, Enrique, approached the ruler of Aragon, Pere III, with whom Pedro had gone to war. When the Aragonese King agreed to support Enrique, many of Castile's nobles also sided with Enrique. The war that resulted ultimately drew in England and France, making Iberia a part of The Hundred Years War.
By 1366, after ten years of warfare with Aragon, Enrique succeeded in forcing Pedro to abandon his kingdom. In return, Pedro reached an agreement with Edward, the Black Prince and the English invaded the Iberian peninsula. The English army numbered 28,000. They defeated a combined force of Castilian and French at the Battle of Najera on April 3, 1367. Enrique escaped, but many of his followers were captured. Pedro saw one of his former followers among the prisoners and, in a fit of rage, stabbed him to death. The Black Prince was appalled at both the dishonor of the conduct, and the disregard for potential ransom. Pedro then offered to pay the ransom for every captive. Prince Edward refused, saying he wouldn't let Pedro pay the ransom, even if he payed more than the prisoners were worth, because he believed that Pedro would murder them all.
The alliance with England was over shortly afterward, when Pedro delayed sending the money he had promised to Prince Edward. With the departure of the English, the Castilians again threw their support behind Enrique. He also succeeded in getting a defector from the French--Bertrand du Guesclin, a knight and one of the commanders of the Free Company mercenaries. Two years after the defeat at Najera, Pedro was ambushed and found himself under siege in the castle of Montiel.
Pedro's intrigues were not over yet. He sent a knight who knew the French knight to offer him a huge bribe if Bertrand would let Pedro escape. The next day Pedro got word that Bertrand had accepted the offer, and he and a few of his followers sneaked out of the castle and went to the French camp. He was delayed there by Bertrand until Enrique arrived.
That was when Pedro realized that Bertrand had set him up. The events that happened next aren't entirely clear, as they differ slightly depending on what chronicle is read. Regardless of precisely what insults they hurled at each other, they both drew weapons and wound up on the ground, grappling with each other. It seems that Pedro was on the verge of winning, but someone pulled him off of Enrique. According to Froissart's chronicle, Enrique then killed Pedro with a sword-thrust to the stomach. Enrique thus became the undisputed King of Castile. Bertrand was rewarded with six towns and 200,000 gold doubloons. He was summoned back to France by the king in 1370 and became commander of the military there, where he helped France to regain much of the territory it had lost to England.
It sounds to me like there's enough material here to cover at least two or three television seasons. Move over, Kardashians.
I can only imagine the eagerness with which people would flock to the tablets, smartphones, or DVRs for the drama that surrounded King Alfonso XI of Castile.
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| King Alfonso XI. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Source: "Chroniques" Vol I by Jean Froissart Illumination by Virgil Master, c. 1410 |
Leonor de Guzman was a widow of Juan de Velasco, who had died in 1328. She was the daughter of a nobleman, Pedro de Guzman, and her mother, Beatriz Ponce de Leon, was a great-granddaughter of King Alfonso IX of Leon. She and King Alfonso had ten children.
When King Alfonso XI died in 1350, Pedro, as the legitimate son, became the new King of Castile. He had a long memory, and now that his exile was over, he had scores to settle. He wasn't nicknamed Pedro the Cruel without reason. Coming into the throne with a Court that had for years been under the influence of Leonor and her sons meant that Pedro was stepping into the midst of intrigue.
Physical descriptions give him as being blond-haired and blue-eyed, thin, and with a slight speech impediment. His personality was said to be manipulative and vindictive. Several members of the aristocracy were assassinated or executed even after they had thought they had made peace with him. One of his first targets was Leonor herself. He had her imprisoned, and she was executed upon the orders of Pedro's mother--the slighted Queen Maria--in 1351.
The treatment of his mother doesn't seem to have curbed a similar tendency in Pedro, for he preferred his mistress to his wife. He married Blanche de Bourbon, daughter of the Duke of Bourbon, to solidify the alliance with France, and which also brought a massive dowry. They were married in 1353, and two days after the ceremony, he abandoned his new bride for his mistress. The resulting scandal strained the alliance with France, and caused Pedro to fall afoul of the Papacy. He tried to obtain an annulment, but ultimately had her imprisoned, and then murdered in 1361.
Pedro wasn't done causing problems. Castile had historically directed its martial energies toward the Moors in the south in Granada. Pedro ended the hostilities with them, instead allying with them to invade his fellow-Christian kingdom of Aragon because he had decided he wanted to control the Iberian peninsula.
Having successfully stirred up trouble away from home, Pedro now concentrated on home. In 1358 he invited his illegitimate yet powerful half-brother, Fadrique, to have dinner with him at the palace in Seville. Fadrique was escorted to the dinner table by Pedro's guards, where an execution order was given, and Fadrique's head was smashed in from behind by a mace. Pedro then went through the castle murdering members of the contingent that had traveled to the castle with Fadrique. The story is that he then returned to his table, only to find the unfortunate Fadrique still alive. He gave a dagger to a page and told him to finish the job. According to chronicles, Pedro then sat down and finished his meal.
This proved to be too much. Fadrique's twin brother, Enrique, approached the ruler of Aragon, Pere III, with whom Pedro had gone to war. When the Aragonese King agreed to support Enrique, many of Castile's nobles also sided with Enrique. The war that resulted ultimately drew in England and France, making Iberia a part of The Hundred Years War.
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| Image from Froissart's "Chroniques" Pedro the Cruel killing a prisoner after the Battle of Najera. If the image here is a true and accurate portrayal of the event, the location of the wound being inflicted could indicate either practicality (the armor would be hard to penetrate anywhere other than the articulations) or the illustrator's attempt to show Pedro's cruelty, as such a wound results in a miserable, sometimes lingering death. |
The alliance with England was over shortly afterward, when Pedro delayed sending the money he had promised to Prince Edward. With the departure of the English, the Castilians again threw their support behind Enrique. He also succeeded in getting a defector from the French--Bertrand du Guesclin, a knight and one of the commanders of the Free Company mercenaries. Two years after the defeat at Najera, Pedro was ambushed and found himself under siege in the castle of Montiel.
Pedro's intrigues were not over yet. He sent a knight who knew the French knight to offer him a huge bribe if Bertrand would let Pedro escape. The next day Pedro got word that Bertrand had accepted the offer, and he and a few of his followers sneaked out of the castle and went to the French camp. He was delayed there by Bertrand until Enrique arrived.
That was when Pedro realized that Bertrand had set him up. The events that happened next aren't entirely clear, as they differ slightly depending on what chronicle is read. Regardless of precisely what insults they hurled at each other, they both drew weapons and wound up on the ground, grappling with each other. It seems that Pedro was on the verge of winning, but someone pulled him off of Enrique. According to Froissart's chronicle, Enrique then killed Pedro with a sword-thrust to the stomach. Enrique thus became the undisputed King of Castile. Bertrand was rewarded with six towns and 200,000 gold doubloons. He was summoned back to France by the king in 1370 and became commander of the military there, where he helped France to regain much of the territory it had lost to England.
It sounds to me like there's enough material here to cover at least two or three television seasons. Move over, Kardashians.
Sunday, January 19, 2014
Stepping from Reality to Legend - The Story of Elizabeth Bathory
It would seem that the Near East, perhaps more steeped in superstition than the West, has given rise to numerous legends. One of the best known, of course, is that of Vlad Drakul, or Dracula. A less well-known one involves Elizabeth Bathory, "The Blood Countess."
The legend that grew up around this woman is, of course, dramatic and exciting. Written versions did not appear until more than 100 years after Elizabeth's death. She was said to be a cruel and incredibly beautiful woman who became involved in the occult. She came to believe that the blood of young women would revitalize her youth and beauty, and, determined to keep them, she kidnapped and murdered young girls to bathe in their blood. By the late Middle Ages, the number of deaths laid at her door numbered around 600.
Her dark deeds were brought to light when the bodies of some young noblewomen were found thrown from the castle towers, drained of blood. The locals began to suspect the countess and went to authorities. King Matthias II sent his delegation, who discovered rooms spattered with blood, and in some versions, virtually caught the countess red-handed in the midst of her beauty ritual of bathing in blood. The countess' accomplices were executed, and the countess herself imprisoned in her castle until her death.
Elizabeth Bathory was an actual person. She was born into a very prominent and wealthy Transylvanian family in 1560. Her cousin, Stephen Bathory, was King of Poland between 1576 and 1586.
At age 15, Elizabeth was married to Ferencz Nadazdy, also of a powerful and influential family, and the couple lived in a castle near Cechtice. Her husband was a soldier and an intellectual who was often away, either engaging in battles or studying in Vienna. This left Elizabeth to manage the castle, properties and business affairs of her husband.
She proved herself more than capable, sometimes personally interrogating prisoners, which in those times often involved various degrees of torture. There is some possibility that she and her family were Protestant adherents, which may have added to the ill-will between her family and the Hapsburgs. As did all powerful people in those times, she had numerous political enemies. When her husband died in 1604, it is extremely likely that her wealth and lands were eyed as glittering prize by her enemies.
In 1610, the Hungarian King Matthias II, who owed significant sums to Nadazdy, sent his Viceroy to the Bathory castle to investigate rumors of murder. Documents contemporary to the time state that her believed "accomplices" testified that they had seen her torture and kill between 30 and 35 people. Some of these "accomplices" were later executed. Elizabeth herself was never formally and publicly tried, but was exiled to a section of the Bathory castle, where she died in 1614.
Of course, the entire truth will never be known. Elizabeth may very well have been a cruel and harsh taskmistress who tortured and murdered political prisoners, or who abused or even murdered servants who fell afoul of her. It is also entirely possible that King Matthias found a strong-willed, wealthy, and influential woman to whom he owed a great deal of money to be inconvenient. Whether her supposed accomplices were loyal servants who were questioned and then punished for their loyalty, or whether they were poor souls who were bribed to implicate the countess and then murdered so that they couldn't reveal the falsity of the charges will forever be open to speculation.
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| Image of Original Painting of Elizabeth Bathory |
Her dark deeds were brought to light when the bodies of some young noblewomen were found thrown from the castle towers, drained of blood. The locals began to suspect the countess and went to authorities. King Matthias II sent his delegation, who discovered rooms spattered with blood, and in some versions, virtually caught the countess red-handed in the midst of her beauty ritual of bathing in blood. The countess' accomplices were executed, and the countess herself imprisoned in her castle until her death.
Elizabeth Bathory was an actual person. She was born into a very prominent and wealthy Transylvanian family in 1560. Her cousin, Stephen Bathory, was King of Poland between 1576 and 1586.
At age 15, Elizabeth was married to Ferencz Nadazdy, also of a powerful and influential family, and the couple lived in a castle near Cechtice. Her husband was a soldier and an intellectual who was often away, either engaging in battles or studying in Vienna. This left Elizabeth to manage the castle, properties and business affairs of her husband.
She proved herself more than capable, sometimes personally interrogating prisoners, which in those times often involved various degrees of torture. There is some possibility that she and her family were Protestant adherents, which may have added to the ill-will between her family and the Hapsburgs. As did all powerful people in those times, she had numerous political enemies. When her husband died in 1604, it is extremely likely that her wealth and lands were eyed as glittering prize by her enemies.
In 1610, the Hungarian King Matthias II, who owed significant sums to Nadazdy, sent his Viceroy to the Bathory castle to investigate rumors of murder. Documents contemporary to the time state that her believed "accomplices" testified that they had seen her torture and kill between 30 and 35 people. Some of these "accomplices" were later executed. Elizabeth herself was never formally and publicly tried, but was exiled to a section of the Bathory castle, where she died in 1614.
Of course, the entire truth will never be known. Elizabeth may very well have been a cruel and harsh taskmistress who tortured and murdered political prisoners, or who abused or even murdered servants who fell afoul of her. It is also entirely possible that King Matthias found a strong-willed, wealthy, and influential woman to whom he owed a great deal of money to be inconvenient. Whether her supposed accomplices were loyal servants who were questioned and then punished for their loyalty, or whether they were poor souls who were bribed to implicate the countess and then murdered so that they couldn't reveal the falsity of the charges will forever be open to speculation.
Saturday, January 11, 2014
William Marshal
First, let me say I'm sorry for the delay in a new post--technology is wonderful when it works, but the last few days of dealing with a crashed computer have left me yearning for, well, something else.
But now that I've (mostly) resolved my computer issues, I was able to read an interesting little article from my friends at Medievalists.net about William Marshal, a man who interests me greatly. For not ever actually being a king, he played a large role in British history.
He was born in 1146, probably at Hamstead Marshall Castle in Berkshire, or possibly at Marlborough Castle in Wiltshire. He was the son of John the Marshal, and nephew through his mother to the Earl of Wiltshire. He married Isabel de Clare, daughter of Richard de Clare, the 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and it is through her that he ultimately became Earl of Pembroke himself.
He served three kings, King Henry II, King Richard III, and, despite a tumultuous relationship with him, King John. William was known as a talented knight as well as a shrewd statesman, which may be why he was able to not only survive the treacherous sands of shifting alliances throughout his lifetime, but to flourish in them. He suddenly fell ill and died on May 14, 1219 at his own Caversham Castle in Oxfordshire.
To read the story about how he avoided being ammunition in a catapult, please see the link below:
But now that I've (mostly) resolved my computer issues, I was able to read an interesting little article from my friends at Medievalists.net about William Marshal, a man who interests me greatly. For not ever actually being a king, he played a large role in British history.
He was born in 1146, probably at Hamstead Marshall Castle in Berkshire, or possibly at Marlborough Castle in Wiltshire. He was the son of John the Marshal, and nephew through his mother to the Earl of Wiltshire. He married Isabel de Clare, daughter of Richard de Clare, the 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and it is through her that he ultimately became Earl of Pembroke himself.
He served three kings, King Henry II, King Richard III, and, despite a tumultuous relationship with him, King John. William was known as a talented knight as well as a shrewd statesman, which may be why he was able to not only survive the treacherous sands of shifting alliances throughout his lifetime, but to flourish in them. He suddenly fell ill and died on May 14, 1219 at his own Caversham Castle in Oxfordshire.
To read the story about how he avoided being ammunition in a catapult, please see the link below:
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